14.1 Read the sentences below, adapted from an airport disruption report. Find the agentless passive verb phrase in each (or write 'none' if there isn't one).

Example: All flight operations at Catania Fontanarossa would be suspended until 12:00 local time. → would be suspended

1. Airspace sectors C1 and B3 were also closed as part of the restrictions.
2. A red Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) was issued in response to the ongoing ash emission.
3. Five flights were sent to Palermo on September 26.
4. KM642 was canceled because of the volcanic activity and resulting restrictions.
5. The reopening of flight operations will depend on the volcanic ash situation.
6. A TUI fly Belgium service was similarly diverted via Palermo.
7. Additional time may be needed to reposition aircraft and crews.

14.2 Rewrite each pair of sentences as one sentence, using forcing or prompting + object + to-infinitive, as in the example.

Example: The ash cloud approached, so the airport reduced capacity. → The ash cloud approached, forcing the airport to reduce capacity.

1. The eruption continued, so SAC suspended all arrivals and departures.
2. Volcanic ash posed a hazard to aircraft, so pilots avoided sector C1.
3. Prevailing wind conditions changed, so controllers closed sector B3.
4. A red VONA was issued, so airlines diverted flights away from Catania.
5. Reduced visibility increased the risk, so the carrier canceled KM642.
6. The ash plume reached 4 kilometers, so SAC tightened the restrictions.

14.3 Complete each sentence with the correct agentless passive form of a verb from the box: drive / send / issue / allow / divert / cancel / tighten.

Example: The decision ______ (drive) by concerns about engine damage. → was driven

1. The restrictions at Catania ________________ by the presence of volcanic ash.
2. Several services ________________ to Comiso while Catania remained closed.
3. A red VONA ________________ in response to the ongoing ash emission.
4. Passengers ________________ to continue their journey to Catania by bus, thanks to the diversion.
5. Five flights ________________ to Palermo on September 26.
6. Restrictions ________________ later, leading to a complete suspension.
7. KM642 ________________ because of the volcanic activity and resulting airspace limitations.

14.4 Use the prompts to write full sentences about a new volcanic disruption at Comiso Airport. Choose agentless passive or forcing/prompting/allowing + object + to-infinitive, whichever fits best.

Example: sector D1 / close / (agentless passive) → Sector D1 was closed.

1. Mount Etna / erupt again / force / Comiso Airport / suspend departures
2. ash cloud / reach / 5 km / prompt / carriers / divert flights
3. sector D2 / close / (agentless passive)
4. restrictions / drive by / strong winds
5. additional buses / allow / passengers / continue their itineraries

15.1 Join the two sentences into one, using a participle clause with force or prompt (forcing/prompting + object + to-infinitive).

Example: Ash fell on the runway. This forced ground crews to close it for inspection. → Ash fell on the runway, forcing ground crews to close it for inspection.

1. The eruption intensified. This forced Catania Airport to suspend all flight operations.
2. The ash cloud reached sector B3. This prompted controllers to close the sector.
3. Wind conditions changed direction. This forced the airport to tighten its restrictions.
4. Ten flights were diverted. This prompted several carriers to arrange ground transportation for passengers.
5. The VONA warning was upgraded to red. This forced airlines to reconsider their itineraries.
6. Capacity was reduced throughout the morning. This prompted Aeroitalia to move its services to Comiso.

15.2 Rewrite each sentence as instructed in brackets: with a participle clause (forcing/prompting) or with therefore.

Example: (therefore) Heavy ash accumulated on the runway, so the airport closed it for inspection. → Heavy ash accumulated on the runway. The airport therefore closed it for inspection.

1. (therefore) The ash cloud posed a hazard to aircraft, so flight operations were suspended.
2. (participle) Because of the volcanic ash, Catania Airport suspended all arrivals and departures.
3. (therefore) Wind conditions changed direction, so the restrictions were tightened.
4. (participle) Because of the red VONA, several carriers diverted their flights to Palermo.
5. (therefore) Sector C1 was closed, so controllers rerouted traffic through sector B3.
6. (participle) As a result of the eruption, airlines needed additional ground transportation for passengers.

15.3 Read the text about the Etna disruption. Find the six participle clauses of cause/result (forcing / prompting / leading to / allowing / driving) and say what the cause and the effect are in each case.

Text: 'Heavy ashfall affected Catania Fontanarossa on September 26, forcing the airport to suspend all arrivals and departures. The closure of sector C1 further complicated operations, prompting several carriers to divert flights to Palermo and Trapani. Restrictions were gradually tightened, leading to a full suspension of flight operations. Strong prevailing wind conditions pushed the ash cloud south, prompting INGV to issue a red VONA. Brussels Airlines arranged ground transportation for affected passengers, allowing them to continue their itinerary by bus, while the ongoing emission continued driving further diversions.'

Example: 'Ash reached sector C1, closing the sector to traffic.' → Cause: ash reached sector C1. Effect: the sector was closed to traffic.

1. forcing the airport to suspend all arrivals and departures
2. prompting several carriers to divert flights to Palermo and Trapani
3. leading to a full suspension of flight operations
4. prompting INGV to issue a red VONA
5. allowing them to continue their itinerary by bus
6. continued driving further diversions

15.4 Complete the sentences with the best word or phrase from the box.

forcing | prompting | leading to | resulting | therefore | in response to

Example: The ash plume reached 4 kilometres above sea level, ______ a red VONA to be issued. → leading to

1. Mount Etna's renewed activity disrupted air travel across Sicily, ________________ Catania Airport to suspend all flights.
2. The ash cloud moved toward sector B3, ________________ controllers to close the sector.
3. Restrictions were tightened throughout the day, ________________ a complete suspension of operations.
4. KM Malta Airlines canceled two services because of the volcanic activity and ________________ restrictions at Catania.
5. Volcanic ash poses a hazard to aircraft engines; flight operations were ________________ suspended until conditions improved.
6. A red VONA was issued ________________ the ongoing ash emission reported by INGV.

16.1 Complete the sentences with the Present Perfect Passive (has/have been + past participle) of the verb in brackets.

Example: Catania Airport ______ (disrupt) by renewed volcanic activity. → has been disrupted

1. Sectors C1 and B3 ________________ (close) as part of the restrictions.
2. A red VONA ________________ (issue) in response to the ongoing ash emission.
3. At least ten flights ________________ (divert) to other Italian airports, according to Italian media.
4. Several services ________________ (cancel) instead of being diverted.
5. The reopening of flight operations ________________ (not / confirm) yet.
6. Additional ground transportation ________________ (arrange) for affected passengers.
7. The airspace restriction ________________ (tighten) since yesterday.

16.2 Choose the correct form — Past Simple Passive or Present Perfect Passive — according to the context.

Example: KM642 was canceled / has been canceled on September 26. → was canceled (a dated, finished fact)

1. Brussels Airlines' Catania-Brussels service scheduled for September 26 was canceled / has been canceled, and passengers are not expected back until September 27 or 28.
2. Flight operations at Catania was suspended / have been suspended, and no reopening time has been confirmed yet.
3. Five flights were sent / have been sent to Palermo, according to Italian media reports.
4. The airport's capacity was reduced / has been reduced initially, before restrictions were tightened to a complete suspension.
5. Sector C1 was closed / has been closed, and it remains closed at the time of writing.
6. A red VONA was issued / has been issued yesterday evening.
7. The situation at Catania was affected / has been affected by prevailing wind conditions, and the forecast remains uncertain.
8. Catania was unavailable / has been unavailable throughout the morning, and airlines are still rerouting flights.

16.3 Explain in English the difference in meaning between each pair of sentences.

Example: a) The flight was canceled. b) The flight has been canceled. → (a) states a past fact, possibly already resolved or no longer relevant; (b) emphasizes that the cancellation is still in effect now.

1. a) Catania Airport was closed on September 26. b) Catania Airport has been closed since September 26.
2. a) The ash cloud was reported moving south. b) The ash cloud has been reported moving south and continues to pose a hazard to aircraft in the area.
3. a) Passengers' itinerary were changed. b) Passengers' itineraries have been changed, and they are still waiting for new travel arrangements.
4. a) The airport was operated with reduced capacity. b) The airport had initially been operated with reduced capacity before the complete suspension was announced.
5. a) Carriers diverted flights to Palermo. b) Carriers have diverted flights to Palermo, and some passengers are still waiting for onward ground transportation.

17.1 Rewrite each direct statement as an official reported statement, using would be + past participle after said that.

Example: "We will suspend all arrivals and departures until further notice." (SAC) → SAC said that all arrivals and departures would be suspended until further notice.

1. "We will divert flights to Palermo and Trapani." (Aeroitalia)
2. "We will cancel KM642 and KM643 because of the volcanic activity." (KM Malta Airlines)
3. "We will close airspace sectors C1 and B3." (the authorities)
4. "We will restore full schedules by September 28." (the airport operator)
5. "We will reopen the airport once the ash cloud moves away." (SAC)
6. "We will send diverted flights to Comiso and Palermo." (Italian air traffic control)

17.2 Rewrite these confident statements as cautious, hedged predictions using may or may also need.

Example: "Airlines need extra time to reposition aircraft and crews." → Airlines may also need additional time to reposition aircraft and crews.

1. "Passengers need ground transportation to continue their journey to Catania."
2. "SAC needs to issue a new VONA if the ash plume grows."
3. "The airport needs to extend the suspension beyond 12:00."
4. "Carriers need to update passengers' itineraries."
5. "Brussels Airlines needs to arrange alternative flights for the affected passengers."

17.3 Complete the official airport statement with would be + the correct past participle of a verb from the box: suspend, close, divert, cancel, reopen, restore, monitor.

Example: SAC announced that flight operations at Catania ______ (suspend) until 12:00 local time. → would be suspended

1. Airspace sectors C1 and B3 ________________ (close) as part of the restrictions.
2. Incoming flights ________________ (divert) to Palermo, Trapani and Comiso.
3. KM Malta Airlines confirmed that KM642 and KM643 ________________ (cancel) because of the volcanic activity.
4. The airport operator added that services ________________ (reopen) gradually once conditions improved.
5. Officials said that normal schedules ________________ (restore) by September 28.
6. SAC stated that flight operations ________________ (suspend) until the ash cloud moved away.
7. The ash cloud, reaching approximately 4 kilometers high, ________________ (monitor) by INGV throughout the day.

17.4 Read these sentences from airport and airline statements. Mark each one C (certain, firm decision — would be) or P (possible, hedged prediction — may/may need).

Example: "SAC said that flight operations would be suspended until 12:00 local time." → C — would be + passive reports a firm decision already taken.

1. "Airlines may also need additional time to reposition aircraft and crews."
2. "The airspace may be reopened earlier than planned if conditions improve."
3. "The reopening depends on associated airspace restrictions, which may be lifted by evening."
4. "KM Malta Airlines confirmed that KM642 and KM643 would be canceled."
5. "Passengers may need ground transportation if their flight is diverted."
6. "Brussels Airlines said that around 140 passengers would be affected by the cancellation."

18.1 Expand the reduced relative clause into a full clause with which/who + a form of be.

Example: The ash plume reaching 4 kilometres was reported by INGV. → The ash plume which was reaching 4 kilometres was reported by INGV.

1. Flights diverted to Palermo landed safely despite the disruption.
2. The cloud moving south was tracked closely by INGV.
3. Passengers affected by the cancellation received new itineraries.
4. The airspace sectors closed as part of the restrictions included C1 and B3.
5. Carriers operating reduced schedules reported delays to departures.
6. The airline affected by the ash cloud diverted two flights to Comiso.

18.2 Rewrite each sentence, reducing the relative clause to a participle clause.

Example: The airport, which was operating with reduced capacity, later suspended all flights. → The airport, operating with reduced capacity, later suspended all flights.

1. Ten flights, which were diverted away from Catania, landed at other Italian airports.
2. The ash plume, which was reaching 4 kilometres, posed a hazard to aircraft.
3. KM Malta Airlines, which was affected by the restrictions, canceled two flights.
4. The ash cloud, which was moving south, was reported by INGV.
5. Passengers, who were affected by the cancellations, needed additional ground transportation.
6. A red VONA, which was issued in response to the eruption, warned carriers of the hazard.

18.3 Read the short update below. Find all six reduced relative clauses and classify each one as active (-ing) or passive (-ed).

Example: A new ash cloud reaching 5 kilometres above Etna was reported on September 28. → reaching — active

1. Text: 'A new ash cloud reaching 5 kilometres above Etna was reported on September 28. The cloud, moving east, prompted SAC to close sector B3 again. Flights affected by the closure were diverted to Palermo and Comiso. Passengers delayed by the disruption were offered ground transportation to Catania. Carriers operating reduced schedules expect the restrictions to remain in place until wind conditions change.' List all reduced relative clauses you find, with their classification.

18.4 Complete each sentence with the correct participle form (-ing or -ed) of a verb from the box.

Example: Verbs: reach, divert, affect, move, operate, issue. — Sector C1, ______ (close) since September 26, remains unavailable for departures. → closed

1. The ash plume ________________ (reach) 4 kilometres above sea level forced the closure of two sectors.
2. Flights ________________ (divert) to Comiso allowed Aeroitalia to continue some services.
3. The VONA ________________ (issue) in response to the eruption was classified as red.
4. Passengers ________________ (affect) by the Brussels Airlines cancellation were rebooked for September 28.
5. The cloud, ________________ (move) south, was tracked closely by INGV.
6. Carriers ________________ (operate) with reduced capacity reported delays to their schedules.

19.1 Rewrite each sentence using nominalization: noun + -ing instead of that + clause. Keep the same time reference.

Example: INGV reported that the ash plume reached approximately 4 kilometers above sea level. → INGV reported an ash plume reaching approximately 4 kilometers above sea level.

1. The observatory confirmed that the cloud was moving south.
2. Officials noted that the restrictions were affecting sectors C1 and B3.
3. SAC reported that ash emissions were continuing throughout the day.
4. INGV reported that the plume was reaching higher altitudes overnight.
5. The airport confirmed that wind conditions were pushing the cloud toward the coast.
6. Controllers reported that ash was affecting sector B3 directly.

19.2 Rewrite each sentence using nominalization: noun (from the box in section B) + of + noun phrase, instead of that + clause.

Example: SAC said that all flight operations would be suspended until 12:00 local time on September 27. → SAC announced the full suspension of flight operations until 12:00 local time on September 27.

1. Italian media reported that carriers diverted at least 10 flights to other airports.
2. The airport confirmed that flight operations would reopen once ash levels decreased.
3. KM Malta Airlines said that it canceled two flights because of the volcanic activity.
4. Officials reported that airspace sectors C1 and B3 were restricted during the eruption.
5. SAC confirmed that flight operations would restart gradually after the ash cleared.
6. Brussels Airlines said that it canceled its Catania-Brussels service scheduled for September 26.

19.3 These sentences use nominalization, as in a news report. Rewrite them as reported speech with that, making the necessary tense shift (see Unit 12).

Example: INGV reported an ash plume reaching approximately 4 kilometers above sea level. → INGV reported that the ash plume was reaching approximately 4 kilometers above sea level.

1. SAC announced the full suspension of flight operations until 12:00 local time.
2. The airport confirmed the reopening of flight operations for September 27.
3. Officials reported the diversion of ten flights to other Italian airports.
4. KM Malta Airlines announced the cancellation of its two Catania services.
5. The observatory reported the ash cloud moving south.
6. Brussels Airlines announced the cancellation of its Catania-Brussels service.

19.4 Use the notes to write a short INGV/SAC-style news summary (2–3 sentences) using nominalization instead of full that-clauses. Use at least two TARGET or ANCHOR words from this unit in each summary.

Example: Notes: INGV said the ash plume reached about 4 km. The cloud was moving south. A red VONA was issued because the ash posed a hazard to aircraft. → INGV reported an ash plume reaching about 4 kilometers above sea level, with the cloud moving south. A red VONA was issued because of an ash plume posing a hazard to aircraft.

1. Notes: Mount Etna erupted again. INGV said the ash plume reached about 5 kilometers. The cloud was moving toward the Ionian Sea. Catania Airport confirmed a full suspension of flight operations until further notice.
2. Notes: SAC confirmed the airport would reopen on September 28. Several carriers reported the diversion of flights to Palermo. The observatory noted ash emissions continuing overnight.
3. Notes: KM Malta Airlines announced it canceled two flights. Brussels Airlines said about 140 passengers were affected, facing changes to their itinerary and needing ground transportation. The airport said capacity was reduced before the full suspension.

20.1 Write a short definition for each word or phrase from Lesson C. Compare with the model answers.

Example: carrier → an airline that operates flights (= operator)

1. sector
2. itinerary
3. pose a hazard to
4. ground transportation
5. prevailing wind conditions
6. Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA)

20.2 Complete the summary of the Etna incident with the correct word or phrase. Use each item once.

Example: Renewed volcanic activity at Mount Etna ______ Catania Airport to suspend all flight operations. → forced

1. Renewed volcanic activity at Mount Etna ________________ Catania Airport to suspend all flight operations.
2. The eruption also ________________ several airlines to divert or cancel services.
3. The restrictions were ________________ by volcanic ash and prevailing wind conditions.
4. Reduced capacity later ________________ a complete suspension of arrivals and departures.
5. The airport ________________ operated with reduced capacity before closing completely.
6. Before long, Catania became completely ________________ to arriving traffic.
7. All ________________ at the airport were suspended from 12:00 local time.
8. A red VONA was ________________ by the Volcano Observatory.
9. The VONA was issued ________________ the ongoing ash emission.
10. According to INGV, the ash plume was ________________ approximately 4 kilometers above sea level.
11. INGV reported that the plume reached ________________ 4 kilometers above sea level.
12. The ash cloud was ________________, away from the airport's main approach paths.
13. At least ten flights were ________________ to other Italian airports.
14. The diversions ________________ some services to continue operating instead of being canceled.
15. ________________ passengers faced changes to their itineraries.
16. Some travelers needed ________________ ground transportation to reach Catania.
17. The Brussels–Catania service ________________ September 26 was canceled.
18. KM Malta Airlines canceled two flights because of the volcanic activity and the ________________ restrictions.
19. Schedules ________________ the closure will take time to restore.
20. Flight disruption began well before the ________________ was imposed.
21. The ________________ of flight operations will depend on wind direction.
22. Reopening also depends on ________________ airspace restrictions.
23. Each ________________ allowed passengers to reach Catania, though later than planned.

20.3 Rewrite each sentence in the passive, keeping the meaning, in the formal operational style of the text.

Example: Volcanic ash forced the airport to suspend operations. → The airport was forced to suspend operations by volcanic ash.

1. The ash cloud prompted airlines to divert their flights.
2. INGV issued a red VONA on September 26.
3. SAC sent five flights to Palermo.
4. Volcanic ash and wind conditions drove the restrictions at Catania.
5. The diversions allowed some services to continue operating.
6. The eruption disrupted schedules across the network.
7. The airline scheduled the Brussels service for September 26.
8. The closure affected around 140 passengers.

20.4 Rewrite each sentence using the corresponding anchor word or phrase from this lesson.

Example: Emirates is one of the largest ______ (= airline) in the Gulf. → carriers

1. Ash can be extremely dangerous for aircraft engines. (rewrite using 'pose a hazard to')
2. The airline changed the passenger's planned route and stops.
3. The airspace near Catania is divided into controlled blocks managed by ATC.
4. The closure happened because of the wind's usual direction and strength at the time.
5. A warning for pilots about the eruption was issued by the observatory.
6. Passengers were taken from Palermo to Catania by bus instead of flying.

20.5 Speaking. Prepare and perform each task using at least eight words/phrases from this lesson. Model answers give useful phrases, not full scripts.

Example: In one sentence, say why Catania Airport closed on September 26. → Catania Airport was forced to suspend all flight operations because volcanic ash from Mount Etna, driven by prevailing wind conditions, posed a serious hazard to aircraft, and a red VONA was issued in response.

1. Retell the whole Etna incident in about 90 seconds, as if briefing a colleague who has just come on shift.
2. Role-play: you are a dispatcher. Call the captain and explain why Catania is unavailable, what sectors are closed, and which diversion airports are available.
3. Role-play: you are a gate agent. Inform passengers that their flight has been diverted to Palermo, and that ground transportation to Catania has been arranged.
4. Discussion: why might an airport move from reduced capacity to a complete/full suspension rather than staying at reduced capacity? What factors drive that decision?
5. Discussion: compare the consequences for a carrier of diverting a flight versus canceling it outright — for passengers, for the itinerary, and for the airline's schedule.