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← Level C lessonsMOUNT ETNA · LEVEL C · UNIT 15

Forcing, Prompting, Therefore: Participle Clauses of Cause

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Words from the text: force, prompt, resulting, lead to, in response to, carrier, sector, itinerary, pose a hazard to, ground transportation, prevailing wind conditions, Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA)

A One event can have one or more results. Instead of starting a new sentence, you can add a present participle clause with forcing or prompting (+ object + to-infinitive) after a comma. This clause has no subject of its own: it refers back to the whole situation just described, not to a single noun. Two participle clauses can be joined by 'and' when one cause produces two different effects.

Renewed volcanic activity at Mount Etna has disrupted air travel in Sicily, forcing Catania Airport to suspend all arrivals and departures and prompting airlines to divert or cancel flights.

Ash reaching sector C1 closed it to traffic, forcing controllers to reroute aircraft through sector B3.

The ash plume moved south, prompting several carriers to cancel flights instead of diverting them.

Причастный оборот без подлежащего относится ко всей предыдущей части предложения, а не к одному существительному.

B The participle resulting can be placed directly before a noun to mean 'that resulted from the situation already mentioned', which is shorter than a relative clause (restrictions which resulted from the eruption). Leading to introduces a participle clause that names a further, often more serious, consequence of an action - frequently a change from a partial to a complete state.

KM Malta Airlines canceled two flights because of the volcanic activity and resulting restrictions at Catania.

Restrictions were later tightened, leading to a complete suspension of both arrivals and departures.

Prevailing wind conditions pushed the ash cloud toward the airport, leading to the closure of two sectors.

C Therefore is a formal linking adverb meaning 'because of this' / 'as a result'. It usually stands after the subject and the verb be (or another auxiliary), or opens a new sentence - typical of official reports and news style, more formal than so or as a result. In response to is a formal preposition meaning 'because of' or 'as a reaction to', followed by a noun phrase describing an event, warning or notice.

Volcanic ash poses a hazard to aircraft because it can affect engines. The restrictions at Catania were therefore driven by the presence and movement of the ash cloud.

A red Volcano Observatory Notice for Aviation (VONA) was issued in response to the ongoing ash emission.

In response to the closure, airlines arranged ground transportation for passengers continuing their itinerary by bus.

therefore обычно стоит после be/вспомогательного глагола и не требует запятой после себя, в отличие от so.

Exercises

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15.1 Join the two sentences into one, using a participle clause with force or prompt (forcing/prompting + object + to-infinitive).

Example: Ash fell on the runway. This forced ground crews to close it for inspection. → Ash fell on the runway, forcing ground crews to close it for inspection.

  1. The eruption intensified. This forced Catania Airport to suspend all flight operations.
  2. The ash cloud reached sector B3. This prompted controllers to close the sector.
  3. Wind conditions changed direction. This forced the airport to tighten its restrictions.
  4. Ten flights were diverted. This prompted several carriers to arrange ground transportation for passengers.
  5. The VONA warning was upgraded to red. This forced airlines to reconsider their itineraries.
  6. Capacity was reduced throughout the morning. This prompted Aeroitalia to move its services to Comiso.
Answers

For open questions, these are model answers. Other answers may also be correct.

  1. The eruption intensified, forcing Catania Airport to suspend all flight operations.
  2. The ash cloud reached sector B3, prompting controllers to close the sector.
  3. Wind conditions changed direction, forcing the airport to tighten its restrictions.
  4. Ten flights were diverted, prompting several carriers to arrange ground transportation for passengers.
  5. The VONA warning was upgraded to red, forcing airlines to reconsider their itineraries.
  6. Capacity was reduced throughout the morning, prompting Aeroitalia to move its services to Comiso.

15.2 Rewrite each sentence as instructed in brackets: with a participle clause (forcing/prompting) or with therefore.

Example: (therefore) Heavy ash accumulated on the runway, so the airport closed it for inspection. → Heavy ash accumulated on the runway. The airport therefore closed it for inspection.

  1. (therefore) The ash cloud posed a hazard to aircraft, so flight operations were suspended.
  2. (participle) Because of the volcanic ash, Catania Airport suspended all arrivals and departures.
  3. (therefore) Wind conditions changed direction, so the restrictions were tightened.
  4. (participle) Because of the red VONA, several carriers diverted their flights to Palermo.
  5. (therefore) Sector C1 was closed, so controllers rerouted traffic through sector B3.
  6. (participle) As a result of the eruption, airlines needed additional ground transportation for passengers.
Answers

For open questions, these are model answers. Other answers may also be correct.

  1. The ash cloud posed a hazard to aircraft. Flight operations were therefore suspended.
  2. Volcanic ash forced Catania Airport to suspend all arrivals and departures.
  3. Wind conditions changed direction. The restrictions were therefore tightened.
  4. The red VONA prompted several carriers to divert their flights to Palermo.
  5. Sector C1 was closed. Controllers therefore rerouted traffic through sector B3.
  6. The eruption prompted airlines to arrange additional ground transportation for passengers.

15.3 Read the text about the Etna disruption. Find the six participle clauses of cause/result (forcing / prompting / leading to / allowing / driving) and say what the cause and the effect are in each case.

Text: 'Heavy ashfall affected Catania Fontanarossa on September 26, forcing the airport to suspend all arrivals and departures. The closure of sector C1 further complicated operations, prompting several carriers to divert flights to Palermo and Trapani. Restrictions were gradually tightened, leading to a full suspension of flight operations. Strong prevailing wind conditions pushed the ash cloud south, prompting INGV to issue a red VONA. Brussels Airlines arranged ground transportation for affected passengers, allowing them to continue their itinerary by bus, while the ongoing emission continued driving further diversions.'

Example: 'Ash reached sector C1, closing the sector to traffic.' → Cause: ash reached sector C1. Effect: the sector was closed to traffic.

  1. forcing the airport to suspend all arrivals and departures
  2. prompting several carriers to divert flights to Palermo and Trapani
  3. leading to a full suspension of flight operations
  4. prompting INGV to issue a red VONA
  5. allowing them to continue their itinerary by bus
  6. continued driving further diversions
Answers

For open questions, these are model answers. Other answers may also be correct.

  1. Cause: heavy ashfall affected Catania Fontanarossa. Effect: the airport suspended all arrivals and departures.
  2. Cause: the closure of sector C1 complicated operations. Effect: several carriers diverted flights to Palermo and Trapani.
  3. Cause: restrictions were gradually tightened. Effect: a full suspension of flight operations.
  4. Cause: strong prevailing wind conditions pushed the ash cloud south. Effect: INGV issued a red VONA.
  5. Cause: Brussels Airlines arranged ground transportation. Effect: passengers could continue their itinerary by bus.
  6. Cause: the ongoing ash emission continued. Effect: it kept causing further diversions.

15.4 Complete the sentences with the best word or phrase from the box.

forcing | prompting | leading to | resulting | therefore | in response to

Example: The ash plume reached 4 kilometres above sea level, ______ a red VONA to be issued. → leading to

  1. Mount Etna's renewed activity disrupted air travel across Sicily, Catania Airport to suspend all flights.
  2. The ash cloud moved toward sector B3, controllers to close the sector.
  3. Restrictions were tightened throughout the day, a complete suspension of operations.
  4. KM Malta Airlines canceled two services because of the volcanic activity and restrictions at Catania.
  5. Volcanic ash poses a hazard to aircraft engines; flight operations were suspended until conditions improved.
  6. A red VONA was issued the ongoing ash emission reported by INGV.
Answers

For open questions, these are model answers. Other answers may also be correct.

  1. forcing
  2. prompting
  3. leading to
  4. resulting
  5. therefore
  6. in response to